History of the Ottoman Empire

Süleyman the Magnificent

The city of Istanbul, once Constantinople, and before that the legendary Byzantium, lies at the crossroads of Europe and Asia. Half a millennium ago, it was the capital of the largest empire since the fall of Rome. 

These children of modern Turkey who live today in a cosmopolitan city are heirs to a great culture. 

 The rise to power of the Ottoman Turks is one of the most powerful dramas of history. Today that drama is often forgotten, although modern Turkey is filled with reminders. In the 16th century, a sultan known in his own day as the second Solomon ruled half the civilized world from the Topkapi Palace.  The events of his life were recorded in "The Suleymanname", The Book of Suleiman. This illustrated history presents a highly detailed portrait of politics and family, wars and cultural achievements. This is Sultan Suleiman. The Turks called him Kanuni, the law giver. 

To Europeans who both feared and admired him, he was Suleiman the Magnificent. 

The original homeland of the Turks was in Central Asia. A number of tribes migrated westward, reaching Anatolia in the 11th century. Many converted to Islam. They maintained their own language and culture, distinct from their Arab neighbors. The greatest of their dynasties was the House of Osman. These Ottomans finally challenged the Byzantine Empire for control of Constantinople. 

  Poised at the entrance to the Black Sea, Constantinople was the greatest fortress city in the world. For 1,000 years, its walls had never been breached. 

Then, in 1453, Ottoman armies laid siege. After seven months with the Ottomans at the gate, they inhabitants gathered in the Santa Sophia for a final Mass.

The next day, on May 29th, Sultan Mehmed II broke through the wall and led his formidable armies to victory. This was a critical turning point in history, one of the events marking the end of medieval times and the beginning of the modern world. 

 The once great city was plundered. Mehmed the Conqueror marched directly to the Santa Sophia and declared it a house of prayer for Allah.  The Ottomans were well aware of the prize they had won. In the words of a holy man accompanying the army, "What a dome, that vies in rank with the nine spheres of heaven. A perfect master made the interior so vast that it can hold 50,000 persons. If you seek paradise, oh, you Sufi, the topmost heaven is Hagia Sophia.They swiftly began to rebuild and repopulate the city. Constantinople, Rome of the East, now belonged to the Ottoman world and would serve as their capital for nearly 500 years.  The 16th century was an age of kings, powerful men whose wills could dominate the world. This celebrated Turkish map of Europe and the New World was based on the recent voyages of Columbus. Gold and silver brought back from the Americas fueled the ambitions of Europe.  In Spain, the Habsburg King Charles was maneuvering to become Holy Roman Emperor, over the objections of Francis I of France. England was ruled by Henry VIII.

 Austria controlled by the Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand. In Germany, Martin Luther was challenging the authority of the Roman Catholic Pope Clement VII. Suleiman, the first Ottoman sultan to become seriously involved in European politics, was a critical player in this international game. 

 His official monogram, called the tughra, bears his name and titles and declares, "May his victory be everlasting." Court artists recorded the events of his reign in hundreds of paintings, filled with acute observations of time and place. Suleiman acceded to the throne in 1520, and quickly provided the world with ample proof of his military ability. Within a year, his armies marched into Eastern Europe and laid siege to Belgrade. 

 Placed just where the Danube flows through rugged mountains, Belgrade was the gateway to Christian Europe. An eloquent observer from the Austrian court, Baron Busbecq, has given us a vivid record of European response. - In the year 1521, Suleiman arrived before the city of Belgrade with large forces. Finding it open to attack, owing to negligence, he had little difficulty reducing it to submission. If they wish to be safe, they cannot be too careful in securing their fortifications. - In 1522, Ottoman forces attacked the Island of Rhodes, the last stronghold of the Crusades within sight of their mainland. For over four months, the Ottomans stormed the citadel and tunneled under its walls. Both sides lost thousands of men in a siege that lasted until midwinter.  

Impressed by the courage of the defenders, Suleiman decided to show mercy to the Knights of St. John. They had proved to be worthy opponents for the janissaries, the sultan's elite corps of warriors.

 Busbecq's report continues. - The Turkish armies are like mighty rivers, swollen with rain. If they can trickle through at any point in the banks which restrain them, they spread through the breach and cause infinite destruction. 

 

This style of marching in to battle with a military band was later imitated by European armies. The sultan was the embodiment of the state. At Topkapi, only he could pass through this gate on horseback. All others entered on foot, in deference to his power. 

 Süleiman lived and governed in Topkapi Palace, supported by an immense entourage. The kitchens typically served 5,000 people per day. Here was the center of government, education, justice, and administration for the empire. Anatolia, the Balkans, Egypt, the Holy Land, and eventually, as far as Algeria and the Arabian Gulf. To rule so vast an empire, Süleiman ha
d the benefit of thousands of administrators. His closest advisor was Ibrahim Pasha, who had been his childhood friend. A brilliant military strategist, Ibrahim rose swiftly through the ranks and was elevated by the sultan to the post of grand vizier, the second most powerful person in the land. The heart of government was the Divan, a council of ministers, traditionally presided over by the sultan. In the Divan, four days a week, subjects from anywhere in the realm could bring their grievances and ask for justice. 

The sultan often chose to delegate his authority over the Divan to the grand vizier. At all times, he reserved the right to listen, hidden from view behind this screen. Those below never knew when or if they were being observed by the sultan. To protect the welfare of his subjects, Süleiman insisted on the integrity of his officials. Through his many edicts, Ottoman law became codified. They were always issued under his tughra. 

 Süleiman became known as Kanunî, the law giver. - Don't be deceived by the appearance of officials on your staff, and never employ in an official post anyone who is greedy for material possessions, because they are the ones who oppress the common people whom God has entrusted to me. 

In dealing with my soldiers and subjects, whom I have placed in your trust, treat the young as your children, the old as your own father, and those your age as your brother. 

The Ottoman system rejected an elite based on birth, in favor of one based on merit. 

 Many of the empire's greatest leaders came from humble beginnings. Periodically, government officials would visit rural Christian communities to conscript the most promising young boys into the service of the empire. These tribute children, or Devshirme, henceforth would belong to the state. The parents would never see their children again, but many understood that to become a Devshirme was a great opportunity for their sons. The strongest became soldiers, many joining the Janissaries. 

The most intelligent were educated at the Topkapi Palace school alongside the sultan's children in a court never seen by visitors.  Here they studied history, literature, the arts, mathematics, philosophy, and law. Prestigious careers in government administration awaited them.

 Educated Muslims had studied Pythagoras while Europe was still in its Dark Ages. To the Ottoman mind, it was no surprise that the world was round. Islam is the third of the monotheistic religions. It accepts the Old Testament and the New as divinely inspired works from Judaism and Christianity. In the Islamic faith, the devout are called to prayer five times a day. Istanbul has been a haven from religious persecution for centuries. In Suleiman's time, descendants of Jews driven from Spain and Portugal by the Inquisition comprised nearly a quarter of its population. Busbecq commented on this religious tolerance. - The king of the church safeguards the rights of religion as well as any prince in the world. He constrains no one, but permits everyone to live as his conscience dictates. What is more, he permits the practice of four different religions, that of the Jews, the Christians according to the Roman rite, and according to the Greek rite, and that of Islam. 

While Turkey today is a modern secular nation with no state religion, the graceful mosques of Islam still dominate and beautify the skyline.  This is Adam and Eve from an Ottoman manuscript. It tells the story of paradise lost. Central to their philosophy was the concept of paradise, eternal pleasure as a reward for virtue. At Topkapi, Suleiman sought to recreate this garden of delight. In the harem, women lived in seclusion, overseen by the powerful queen mother, the valide sultan. Except for these imagined portraits by Europeans, their faces and lives remain hidden from us. This inner courtyard of the harem was a sanctuary, an area forbidden to outsiders. Women were kept from view, except for eunuchs and servants. And in the Islamic tradition, rarely depicted. Suleiman's early favorite, Gulbahar, had borne him a son, Mustafa, who was the heir apparent to the throne. But soon afterwards, the young Suleiman fell deeply in love with a slave girl of Slavic origin. She was called Hurrem, the bringer of joy.

 He wrote poetry to her. The pen name he chose was Muhibbi, the lover. - Your presence casts a shadow over me like a bird of paradise. I have become the emperor of the world by being a beggar at your door. Let world events rage like the turbulent sea. I will not set sail. The ship of your love is an anchor for me, my intimate companion, my elixir of paradise, my Eden, my Istanbul, my Caraman, and all the Anatolian lands that are mine. If I die, yours is the guilt. Help, I beg you, my love from a different religion. - Go, gentle breeze. Tell my sultan. She weeps and pines away without your face. Like the nightingale, she moans in dismay. The hand of grief pierces her heart with its painful arrow. In your absence, she is sick and wails like that flute, the ney.

 Suleiman surprised his subjects by marrying his consort, an unusual act for an Ottoman sultan. Suleiman was away from the court for over a dozen military campaigns during his 46 year reign.

 In Europe, Charles V and Francis I were contending for the title of Holy Roman Emperor. War broke out. Francis was captured and imprisoned. The king and his mother sent letters asking Sultan Suleiman to help Francis and to prevent the Habsburgs from dominating all of Europe.  This was the imperial reply. - I, the sultan of sultans, the leader of the lords, the crown of the sovereigns of the world, the shadow of God on earth, the sultan and padishah of the Mediterranean, Black Sea, Rumelia, Anatolia, Karaman, Dulkadir, Diyarbakir, Azerbaijan, Iran, Syria, Egypt, Mecca, Medina, all the Arab lands. I am Sultan Suleiman, the son of Selim Han, the son of Bayezid Han. And you, Francis, the king of the province of France, have sent a letter to my court informing that the enemy has entered your country and imprisoned you, asking for my grace and support, hoping for your freedom. Now, it is not befitting for rulers to cower and to be in prison. Keep your spirits high. You will learn our decision from your man.

The sultan allied himself with the French to keep Europe divided, while brilliantly furthering his own strategy.  In the winter of 1525, Suleiman made elaborate preparations for an expedition. Europe waited nervously, not certain if he would march east or west. Young King Louis II of Hungary, under the direction of Charles V, prepared to stop the Ottomans long before they reached the city that would become Budapest.  But the European soldiers in their heavy armor were virtually wiped out by Suleiman's highly disciplined and mobile troops. 20,000 men, including King Louis, died in three hours at the Battle of Mohacs. The Ottomans proceeded to take the city without resistance. Suleiman's stunning victory had enormous impact on the European mind.

 Three years later, Suleiman again marched west to make Hungary secure for the empire. This time, he continued beyond Budapest toward Vienna, threatening the heart of Europe. It is said that Suleiman challenged his archrival Charles to settle matters on the battlefield, man to man, but the Holy Roman Emperor chose not to reply to the sultan of sultans. When the Ottoman forces reached the walls of Vienna, Charles was not there.

 They besieged the city for only 17 days. Vienna held fast. With winter approaching, Suleiman withdrew his forces and started the long, grueling march back to Istanbul. The Austrians watched with relief and jubilation.  Returning to the capital was always an occasion for festival that could last for weeks. Public parades could be organized around holidays, royal marriages, circumcisions.

 They were a display of the might of the empire.  Suleiman would review the festivities, overlooking the hippodrome from the new palace, built by his grand vizier, Ibrahim Pasha, who had married the sultan's sister. 

 The story is told, that Süleiman's father, Selim I, brought shadow puppets back from Egypt to delight his sons. Karagöz, the hero, represents the cunning man in the street, not afraid to poke fun at anyone, great or humble.  These plays mirror the society of Turkey, a colorful parade of many peoples living side by side in the capital.  Shadow plays were as popular in the palace as in coffee houses, an entertainment that unified the people.The court of Süleiman surrounded itself with beauty. As Busbecq observed: - Now come with me and cast your eye over the immense crowd of turbaned heads, wrapped in countless folds of the whitest silk and bright raiment of every kind and hue. And everywhere, the brilliance of gold, silver, purple, silk and satin. No mere words would give an adequate idea of the novelty of the sight. A more beautiful spectacle was never presented to my gaze. Amid all of this luxury, there was a great simplicity and economy. 

The dress of all has the same form, whatever the wearers' rank. Their most beautiful garments are of silk or satin. Our dress, on the other hand, is so short and tight that it discloses the forms of the body, which would be better hidden, and is thus anything but becoming. The finest artists and craftsmen from all parts of the empire were invited to join the imperial workshops. They offered the best examples of their work to the sultan. According to tradition, every Ottoman sultan had to master a craft. Süleiman himself was trained as a goldsmith, and particularly supportive of his jewelers and craftsmen who worked in gold.  Painting studios patronized by Topkapi employed scores of artists who illustrated histories, tracing the origin of the Ottomans back to Adam. The most esteemed form of art was calligraphy. 

The greatest master of the age was Ahmed Karahisari. He elevated verses of the Quran into designs of exquisite variety. Carpets and textiles from the empire became highly coveted in Europe. A distinctive Ottoman style matured. Asian, European, North African artists worked side by side with local masters. This mingling of artistic traditions produced a stunning new synthesis. 

The decorative motifs favored by the court spread throughout the empire. Most of the motifs came from nature,  stylized plants and flowers in fullest bloom. The potters of Iznik perfected the technique of firing tiles with brilliant red and blue pigments.This was truly the golden age of Ottoman art.In this period of economic expansion, the empire acquired an imperial architecture that would equal the greatness of its achievements.  Architect Sinan renovated the Hagia Sophia, and had a lifelong ambition to equal or surpass that great monument. Sinan was a tribute boy who rose through the Devshirme system.

 He spent years as a janissary, building roads and bridges for the army. He was ingenious at solving engineering problems, such as this bridge, constructed in five parts on small, artificial islands, Sinan was appointed royal chief architect at the age of 49. For 50 more years, he would oversee the construction of hundreds of buildings, roads, and water systems throughout the empire. This bath house endowed by Hurrem Sultan continues to serve the people of Istanbul today. The design is symmetrical, with separate facilities for men and women. The dome is punctured repeatedly, opening to the sky and creating luminous shafts of light.  Like the cathedrals in Europe, the mosque was the major symbol of both spiritual and political power. 

Sinan's first important commission from the sultan himself was the Sehzade Mehmed Mosque located in the heart of Istanbul.  Sinan was primarily concerned with the interior space. One striking innovation was the use of acoustic dishes in the ceiling to amplify the voice. Over the centuries, Turkish architects had developed a tradition of great domed structures. 

This was the first of Sinan's many attempts to solve a classic architectural challenge, the relationship between a large dome and its square foundation. In the Sehzade Mosque, the central dome is flanked by four half domes in an attempt to create vast uninterrupted space below. Separate support columns were still necessary. By the end of his life, Sinan had mastered a way to integrate them.  In 1550, Suleiman directed Sinan to gather building materials from all parts of the realm to construct the Suleymaniye complex. (people chattering) This gesture was intended to emphasize the grandeur and unity of the empire. (footsteps rustling) It was also a form of urban renewal, reviving the inner city. 

 The monumental complex dominates one of Istanbul's seven hills and contains schools, colleges, shops, a public bath, an inn, a hospital and a library around the great mosque. Under the Ottoman system of endowment, rents from the various concerns helped support the upkeep of the complex.

 The mosque is decorated with the word of God, written down in calligraphy, and with elaborate floral decoration to evoke the sense of paradise.  Suleiman was the ruler of a vast empire at its cultural height, but he was also the captive of his responsibility. 

Great empires demand constant vigilance. Naval power was now required. In a bold move, Suleiman turned to the audacious privateer, Barbaros Hayrettin. making him grand admiral of the Ottoman fleet. Barbaros defeated the European navies with such regularity that the Eastern Mediterranean became known as the Ottoman Lake. In the next century, Ottoman privateers carried their daring attacks past the European coast as far as Iceland. The strategy was simple, yet effective. 

Such diversionary tactics freed the sultan's armies to march eastward to the rich lands of Iran and Iraq. ) In 1534, the sultan crossed Anatolia to join his forces led by grand vizier, Ibrahim Pasha, who had acquired the title commander in chief of the army. Together, they headed south and conquered Iraq, taking the fabled city of Baghdad. This was to be Suleiman's last campaign with his lifelong friend. Soon afterward, Ibrahim was accused of abusing his position and undermining the authority of the sultan. Many complained that the servant was acting like a master. 

In 1536, without warning, the grand vizier was executed in his bed chamber. Europeans like to say that Hurrem had bewitched the sultan. Another more acute observer remarked, "She knew his nature very well. After Ibrahim's death, Suleiman relied heavily on her judgment."The world might have to guess about her appearance, but no one doubted she would do anything to protect herself and her children. The first born son of Hurrem was Prince Mehmed, shown here hunting with his father. Mehmed was almost certainly Suleiman's choice to succeed him on the throne, but the young man died unexpectedly in his 20s of natural causes.  They say that Suleiman sat by the body for three days and allowed no one to touch it. Finally, the prince was buried. Around this tomb, the father commissioned a mosque complex to be built to commemorate his son.Still worse tragedy followed. Suleiman would live to see two sons die by his own order. 

 This is the fountain of intrigue in the harem, where people could talk in secret, protected by the sound. Perhaps in such a setting, Suleiman would confide in Hurrem. To ensure the continuity of the empire, traditionally, the throne belonged to the eldest son of the sultan. When he ascended, his brothers and even their sons would be killed so that the sultan's power could not be challenged. Hurrem had every reason to oppose and fear Mustafa, eldest son of Suleiman by her former rival, Gulbahar. So long as Mustafa lived, she and her own sons were in jeopardy. Mustafa had grown into an able leader and was much admired by the janissaries. Accused of plotting to usurp the sultan's power, he was summoned to the imperial tent and strangled in 1553, leaving Hurrem's son, Prince Selim in line to be sultan. One month later, Suleiman lost his frail youngest son, Cihangir, who was always at his side. People said the boy died of a broken heart because of the death of his half brother. 

 In the last years of his life, Suleiman became an ascetic. His poetry grew more mystical. - Listen, my heart. Don't crave silver and gold like a highwayman. Don't spruce yourself up in satin and trinkets, like a woman. Don't stand there stiff, chest puffed up like a restless lion. Never cherish wealth or high office. You might conquer far-flung lands and seize and rule them as their sovereign king. Even if your reign on the imperial throne becomes everlasting, don't be taken in. One day, a hostile wind is bound to blow and bring to your land of beauty, heaven's misfortune and worst suffering.  Don't blow up your chest like a proud sail. Shun arrogance and malice.  If you aspire to God's compassion, kindness should come from you too. If you hope to reach the gardens of paradise to find love and grace instead of terrifying destruction when the end comes to you, humble yourself like a skirt. Bow at the sage's feet. And drop your face. - In the Suleymaniye, the sultan prayed before this inscription, "God rewards the ruler who is just.

 The Mevlevi dervishes are a mystical order of Islam. All such sects were allowed to practice freely in Suleiman's time.Their dance brings on a trance state in which they strive to become one with the universe. These are the words of the mystic philosopher, Rumi, who established the order. "Dancing is not getting up painlessly, like a speck of dust blown around in the wind. Dancing is when you rise above both worlds, tearing your heart to pieces and giving up your soul. One hand pointing to heaven, the other extending down to pull energy from the earth, they whirl in timeless ecstasy." 

 With Selim assured of the succession, Hurrem was about to realize her ambition to become valide sultan. But she never lived to see her son gird himself with the sword of Osman. Hurrem died in 1558. Behind the Suleymaniye Mosque, the grieving sultan erected a mausoleum for his wife.  Friends, in my eyes, life has no meaning without the loved one. To the nightingale, the world is a cage if it has no rose garden. I languish on sorrow's mountain, where night and day I sigh and moan, wondering what fate awaits me, with my beloved gone. What good is her province to me, if I am not to see her? This lover will not accept paradise without the loved one. - His expression is anything but smiling and has a sternness, which though sad, is full of majesty. 

He is beginning to feel the weight of years. But his dignity and demeanor and general physical appearance are worthy of the ruler of so vast an empire.  No one dared object when the aging sultan decided to lead his armies to march into Hungary. 

 Suleiman was 72. Too old and sick to ride on horse back, he was transported in a specially made carriage. In August 1566, his forces laid siege to Szigetvar, not far from Mohacs, where 40 years earlier, Suleiman had triumphed. Like a true soldier, the sultan had come to die in the field of battle. On September 5th, he died in his tent. In secret, the grand vizier sent word to Hurrem's son, Prince Selim. Not until the crown prince had put on the sword of Osman were the soldiers informed of Suleiman's death. Near Belgrade, the cortege was met by Selim, the 11th ruler of the House of Osman. - Real men dance and whirl on the battlefield. They dance in their own blood. When they give themselves up, they clap their hands. When they leave behind the imperfections of the self, they dance.  Suleiman was carried back in state to Istanbul and buried here, behind the Suleymaniye Mosque, next to his beloved. Achievements do not die when they are remembered.

 Young Turkish architectural students study the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne, Sinan's masterpiece.  With this dome, the master realized his lifelong dream. "With God's help," he said, "and the sultan's mercy, I have succeeded in building a dome for Sultan Selim's mosque, which is four ells greater in diameter and six ells higher than that of the Hagia Sophia. His dome rides on eight huge supports above vast, uninterrupted space. The art of the age of Suleiman speaks directly to the senses and to the heart. It conveys a statement of pure joy, a paradise on earth.